STUDIES IN IBADhISM

by

Dr. Amr K. al-Nami

Open Mind

First in Open-Books Paperback 2007

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere thanks are extended to Professor R.B. Sergeant for many helpful suggestions, discussions and criticism, which he constantly rendered throughout the period in which he supervised the writing of this research.

Special thanks are due to many Ibadhi friends and scholars in the Ibadhi communities of North Africa for their hospitality and unrestrained help. I am extremely grateful to the owners of private collections of Mss. for free access to their valuable libraries without which this work would have been impossible. Thanks are also due to Sheikh Muhammad al-Salimi, and Salim al-Harithi of Oman for lending me many valuable manuscripts, as well as all other friends who have helped me in one way or another.

I would also like to thank the Libyan Ministry of Education for providing me with a grant for the duration of this research, and the Faculty of Arts, University of Libya, for granting me a study leave in which to undertake this work. My thanks are also due to Pr. Omar Shaibani, the president of the Libyan Univ, Dr. Mansur Kikhya, Dean of the faculty of Arts and Mr. Abd al-Rahman al-Sharidi, head of printing and publication dep. to whom I owe the publication of this work in this excellent form.

GENERAL NOTES

"This work was originally the English part of a thesis submitted to Cambridge University in 1971 for the Ph.D. D. degree" The publication is made without any alteration. The Arabic texts of that thesis will be published separate in due course.

The translation adapted the previous work is the Middle East Center of Cambridge University. The definite article, al- is given always the small letters i.e. al-Wahab al-Shammakhi, etc., unless it is the beginning of a sentence. For the title of books, only the first letter of the title is given except when the title contains names of more than one word; i.e. the original work and a commentary, or summary of two works, i.e. al-Wad wa al-hayah.

The footnotes are given at then end of each chapter. As most of the Mss. I used for this study have not been numbered before, I numbered them in pages; therefore the references are made accordingly, except where the Mss were already numbered in folios, the reference in this case being made to folios distinguished by letters a and b. For the Qur'anic verses quoted in this work, the author used the translation of the late Professor Arberry, unless otherwise stated. The reference was made to the original text of the Qur'an, the number of the Surah, and the number of the 'Ayah and not to the translation.

For the Abbreviation of the Periodicals, the author adopted the abbreviations given in Index Islamicas (pp. xxix; - xxx; 11, xxii – iii; xxiv-xxv).

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................... 3

GENERAL NOTES....................................................................................... 4

PREFACE....................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER I ................................................................................................. 13

THE FOUNDATION OF THE IBADHIAH, AND THE IBADHI VIEWS ON THE KHARIJITES ....................................................................................... 13

"ABDULLAH B. IBADH" .................................................................................. 13

IBADHI VIEWS ON THE KHARIJITES .......................................................... 16

CHAPTER II................................................................................................ 36

JABIR B. ZAID AL-'AZDI ................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER III............................................................................................ 53

ABU 'UBAIDAH MUSLIM B. ABI KARIMAH............................................... 53

The expansion of the Ibadhiyah in North Africa ........................................... 61

The Bears of Learning (Hamalat al-'ilm) ................................................. 63

CHAPTER III............................................................................................. 71

IBADHI JURISPRUDENCE.............................................................................. 71

IBADHI CONTRIBUTION TO THE FIELD OF HADITH:............................ 75

AL-JAMI AL-SAHIH:................................................................................ 76

I) Al-Mudawwanah by Abu Ghanim Bishr b. Ghanim al Khurasani: ............... 79

II) Al-Diwan al-ma'rud 'ala 'Ulama' al-Ibadhiyah: .......................................... 81

III) K. Nikah al-Shighar by Abu Sa'id 'Abdullah b. 'Abd al-'Aziz: .................... 83

SOME EXAMPLES FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IBADHI SCHOOL AND OTHER ISLAMIC SCHOOLS IN LEGAL AND RELIGIOUS OPINIONS:.................................................................................... 88

I) WIPING OVER SHOES AS PART OF "WUDU" ......................................... 89

II) PRAYERS (AL-SALAT) ............................................................................... 90

III) FASTING (AL-SAWM) ................................................................................ 91

IV) ZAKAT ............................................................................................... 92

V) MARRIAGE ....................................................................................... 93

VI) INHERITANCE .................................................................................. 93

VII) PENAL LAW .................................................................................... 93

CHAPTER IV............................................................................................ 102

IBADHI THEOLOGY....................................................................................... 102

The vision (al-Ru'yah) ....................................................................................... 104

The Qur'an ........................................................................................................ 114

The Imamate ..................................................................................................... 117

THE STATUS OF THE IBADHI THEOLOGY IN RELATION TO THE MAIN ISLAMIC SCHISMS.............................................................................. 118

THE SUB-DIVISIONS OF THE IBADHI SECT............................................. 122

1. Al-Wahbiyah .................................................................................... 123

AL-DIYANAT........................................................................................ 124

1. Unity: ........................................................................................................... 124

2. Justice: ..................................................................................................... 125

3. Divine decree: .......................................................................................... 125

4. The states of walayah and enmity: .......................................................... 125

5. Command and prohibition: ...................................................................... 126

6. Promise and threat: .................................................................................. 126

7. The intermediate position: ....................................................................... 127

8. No intermediate position: .....................................127

9. The names and statutes:.................................................................127

I al Nukkar..........................................................................128

II Khalafiyah........................................................................132

III al-Naffathiyah...................................................................133

IV Husainiyah and Umariyah....................................................135

V al-Sakkakiyah..................................................................137

VI al-Farthiyah.....................................................................137

IBADHI WORKS ON THEOLOGY............................................................138

CHAPTER V.......................................................................................162

THE SYSTEM OF AL-WALAYAH AND AL-BARAAH.................162

THE RULES OF AL-WALAYAH.........................................................164

THE RULES OF AL-BARRAH............................................................170

RESERVATION (AL-WUQUF)...........................................................172

THE ORIGINS OF THE SYSTEM OF AL-WALAYAH AND AL-

BARAAH.............................................................................................174

CHAPTER VI......................................................................................190

THE STAGES OF THE IBADHI COMMUNITY.................................190

Manifestations (zuhur).................................................................191

The stage of defence (difa).......................................................191

Shira, the sacrifice of one's life..................................................192

The stage of Secrecy (kitman)...................................................194

RECAPITULATION.............................................................................200

BIBLIOGRAPHY:....................................................204

LIST OF MANUSCRIPTS:.........................................................204

LIST OF ARTICLES.................................................................209

PUBLISHED WORKS...............................................................211

PREFACE

Al-Ibadhiya, or al-Ibadhiyah, is one of the earliest Islamic sects, the foundation of which goes back to the first half of the first century H. The school took its name from Abdullah b. Ibadh, one of its early theologians.

The name Ibadhiyah applies to a Muslim group, which was considered by most writers as a moderate branch of the Kharijite movement. The adherents of this school still form a number of independent communities holding fast to its teachings. The largest of this lives today in Oman and Muscat in Southeast Arabia. There are other minorities in Zanzibar of the East Coast of Africa, in Jabal Nafusah and Zuwarah in Libya, in Jerba Island in Tunisia and in Wad Mzab in Algeria.

Very little is known about the Ibadhiyah, their doctrines, origins and development. Modern European scholars have made useful contributions in the field of Ibadhi studies, but their studies were directed mainly to the history of the Ibadhi communities or some aspects of their present social and religious life. With the exception of a few articles on Ibadhi theology, Ibadhi teachings in general have not been dealt with seriously. The studies conducted by European scholars on Ibadhism were based mainly on historical sources. The vast Ibadhi writings on jurisprudence and theology were not properly utilized. This was no doubt due to the difficulty of access to such sources.

The earlier paper on Ibadhi bibliography was presented by Motylinski in his article on "Bibliographe du Mzab"^* in which he listed the Ibadhi works given by al-Barradi, adding his own notes and findings. However he does not give specific locations of the Mss. he mentions, nor does he give a satisfactory description of them with the exception of the historical works. The value of this study lies in the fact that it was the preliminary step, which facilitated subsequent researches. The latest and most useful list of Ibadhi work in Mzab was made by the late Professor J. Schacht in his article "Bibliotheque et manuscript abadites" in which he listed the extant Ibadhi Mss. in the private collections of Mzab, arranged according to their subjects, giving the names of the collections and the numbers of the Mss. The other lists of Ibadhi collections of Mss. were compiled by other modern scholars: A list of the Ibadhi Mss. in Krakow in Poland made by Wladyslaw Kubiak, in his article "al-Makhtutat al'arabiyah fi Polunia" in Majallat Ma'had al-Makhtutat al-arabiyah; a list of the Ibadhi Mss. in the Oriental Institute of Naples, made by Rubinacci, and also the description of the Ibadhi Mss. in Dar al-Kutub or Cairo, made by the late Fu'ad al-Saiyid in the Catalogue of Dar al-Kutub.

During the course of this study I made two tours to the Ibadhi communities in

North Africa in search of Mss. and material for my work. The first tour was during June - September 1968, and the second was during November - December 1969. Being myself an Ibadhi, it was easier for me to obtain access to private libraries and collections of Mss. than for non-Ibadhis. To my surprise, most of the important Maghribi works, including those which were thought to be lost, were still extant and in good condition. Moreover, there is still great hope for future discovery in this field. A description of some of the new Mss. discovered on my first tour has been published in the Journal of Semitic Studies. It is hoped that a complete list with a full description of all the Mss. I have examined will be made in the near future.

The region, which has not yet been fully explored and is no doubt a place where even more valuable Ibadhi Mss. are likely to be found, is Oman, which requires special attention from students of Ibadhi matters. I myself was unable to visit Oman, but was provided by some early works on jurisprudence and standard Sirahs of early Ibadhi authorities which were of great help in the study on the origins of the Ibadhi school and its relations to the early opposition movements in Islam.

Oman, being a major center of the Ibadhis and the Ibadhi imamate, received close attention from European scholars, an account of which has already been given by J. Wilkinson in his D. Phil. thesis on The Arab Settlement in Oman, Oxford, 1969, and which I therefore do not propose to treat here. However, what seems still to be needed as far as Oman is concerned, though it would not be easy to achieve, is the discovery of more material which would undoubtedly help in forming a clear picture of the Ibadhi school and its development in all Ibadhi areas. For, most of the early Ibadhi authorities moved from Basra to Oman, where strong Imamate was founded and which provided a more congenial atmosphere for those scholars to develop their views and contribute to other Ibadhi countries, but the original material of the Ibadhi doctrine in its early period may well be preserved in Oman, and the likelihood of making important findings there is quite feasible.

European scholars also paid close attention to the Ibadhis of North Africa. Masqueray, who translated the Sirah of Abu Zakariya al-Warijlani into French, started their studies. His work attracted the attention of other scholars who contributed to Ibadhi studies in different fields. In the field of history, Motylinski, in his article on the Ibadhi books, presented full tables of contents of the Ibadhi works on the biographies of the Ibadhi Sheikhs; the Sirah of Abu Zakariya; the Tabaqat of al-Darjini; al-Jawahir of al-Barradi, and the Siyar of al-Shamaakhi. He later edited and translated into French the history of Ibn al-Saghir al-Maliki on the Rustamid Imams. Full reviews of these Ibadhi sources appeared later. Lewicki made reviews of both Tabaqat of al-Darjini, and the

Siyar of al-Shammakhi, and Rubinacci reviewed K. al-Jawahir of al-Barradi. Lewicki, also, possessing a copy of the Siyar of al-Wisyani, published a series of articles using material from al-Wisyani and the other Ibadhi historical works. These cover a number of topics concerned with Ibadhi studies and with Ibadhi communities in their various countries, especially North Africa, their intellectual life and commercial and political activities. His studies appear to be the most satisfactory of those so far discussed despite a few minor points where he was misled mainly because of the lack of material. Brief historical accounts of the Ibadhis of North Africa were given first by Strothmann in his article "Berber und Ibaditen," then a fuller account of the Ibadhis, together with the other Kharijites in north Africa, was presented later by Chaikh Bekri in his article "Le Kharijisme Berber" The Ibadhi sources were used recently by the Italian scholars in the study of the early political conflict in Islam, notably by Vaglieri for an account of the conflict between Ali and Muaawiyah, and by Rubinacci for an account of the relation between the Ummayad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan and the Ibadhis.

Western scholars also dealt with the Ibadhi theology in a number of articles. These appeared after Motylinski presented a French translation of the Ibadhi creed of Amr b, Jumai; i in the year 1905. Nailino afterwards wrote his notes on what he considered to be a Mu'tazili influence on Ibadhi theology. Marino followed up this line of study in his article "Note de teologia ibadita". In this field, the Polish scholar Smogorzewski wrote an article on difference between Ibadhis and Malikis based on a few lines of verse by an anonymous Ibadhi "Un poeme abadite sur certaines divergence enterlest Malikites et les Abadites". Lewicki on his part wrote an informative article on the subdivisions of the Ibadhiyah. There is also a study of the Ibadhi creed of Abu Zakariya' al-Jannnawi with an Italian translation and an examination of its relation to other Islamic sects by Rubinacci.

Ibadhi Jurisprudence has not been dealt with seriously up to the present time. A few articles have appeared in which minor aspects of this subject were treated. There is the article by Rubinacci "La purita rituale secondo gli Ibaditi" in which the presented a comparative study of the subject al-taharah, in Ibadhi and other Islamic schools. There is also an article dealing with the authorities who transmitted the Ibadhi doctrine in North Africa written by Crupi La Rosa in Italian, and based on the work of the modern scholar, 'Abdullah b Yahya al-Baruni, Sullam al-ammah wa al-mubtadi'in. In French there is the work of Goichon on "La vie feminine au Mzab", and also the work of Milliot, "Recueil de deliberations des djema'a du Mzab" in which some points of Ibadhi law were touched upon.

Few other articles were directed to the study of the Ibadhi organization of the

'Azzabah. There is the article of Lewicki on al-Halka and also the article of Rubinacci, "Un antico documento di vita cenobitica musulmana" which deal with the rules of the Halqah. There were the main works on Ibadhi studies concerned with the Maghribi Ibadhi in the European languages. Few notes are to be found where the subjects of the early sectarian movements of Islam were studied, for all European scholars include Ibadhis among the Kharijites.

As for non-Ibadhi Muslim scholars, they always regarded Ibadhis as extreme Kharijites and heretics, and did not pay any serious attention to studying Ibadhi doctrine and forming a clearer image of the Ibadhi School. It was only recently that the Ibadhi School was included among the Islamic schools represented in the new Encyclopaedias of Islamic law appearing in Egypt and Kuwait. This interesting event came about as a result of the continuous Ibadhi activities directed towards gaining better understanding from the neighbouring Muslims. These activities were started by Sulaiman Basha al-Baruni of Jabal Nafusah, who was an active Muslim politician and played a major part in the fighting against the Italian invaders of Libya in 1911. Interest of the Muslim in the Ibadhi affairs was aroused by the part which al-Baruni played together with the Ibadhis of Jabal Nafusah in the war against Italy, his firm loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and his hard struggle for the Muslim cause. He stood for better understanding between Muslims, and was one of the earliest voices to invite Muslims to forget the differences caused by conflict of opinion among the (المذاهب) original masters of their Schools.

and to return to the direct judgement of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The prestige which was established by al-Baruni in international Muslim circles through his heroic struggle against Western colonial invasion brought appreciation for the Ibadhi contribution to Islamic unity, which was the slogan of most Muslim leaders at the time, and paved the way for the Ibadhi views to be heard. In addition to Baruniyah Lithographic Press, established in Cairo before the beginning of this century, Sulaiman al-Baruni established his own printing press during the early part of this century, and issued his newspaper al-Asad al-Islami, in which he propagated his views and tried to give a clearer picture of the Ibadhis. He also published a few Ibadhi books by Omani and Maghribi authors, including his own work on Ibadhi history, al-Azhar al-riyadiyah. The late scholar Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Aftaiyish of Mzab afterwards followed the activities started by al-Baruni in Egypt. He was exiled by the French from Algeria and settled in Egypt, where he issued his journal, al-Minhaj, and participated in editing and publishing the works of the modern Ibadhi scholar Muhammad b. Yusuf Aftaiyish, and some works of the Omani scholar al-Salimi. He was, during his long stay in Egypt, an unofficial representative of the Ibadhi school, defending and propagating Ibadhi views, and he was always ready for consultation on Ibadhi studies. There can be no

doubt that his contribution towards presenting a clearer view of the Ibadhi School was of great importance. This is much in evidence in his magazine, al-Minhaj; in his notes on the works he edited and in his notes on the parts of E.I. translated into Arabic, in which he tried to correct euphonious views on the Ibadhiyah.

Similar activities took place in Tunisia and Algeria through the leaders of Hizb al-Islah of Mzab who joined in the activities of al-Hizb al-Dusturi of 'Abd al-Aziz al-Th'alibi. Among the leading Ibadhi personalities who played an important part in Tunisia were the late Muhammad al-Thamini, originally from Mzab, who established a Bookshop in Tunis, and participated in publishing and circulating Ibadhi literature, and the late Sheikh Sulaiman al-Jadawi of Jerba, who was the editor of the well-known paper, Murshid al-'Ummah. The leading figures of the parallel activities in Algeria were Abu al-Yaqzan Ibrahim, who issued about eight different newspapers during the French rule, and Sheikh Baiyud Ibrahim B. 'Umar who is responsible for the modern reformist movement in Mzab, and its schools and institutions. Both men were active members of Jam'iyat al-'Ulama and personal friends of the leading Sunni scholars of the Jam'iyah. They were all sincere in their aim of seeking better understanding with the neighbouring Sunnis. This movement, which was largely inspired by al-Baruni and his approach, relaxed the bitter attitude of opposition to the Ibadhis in their different communities, and provided a better atmosphere for the Ibadhis to present their views in a moderate way. The latest contribution in this field has been made by 'Ali Mua'ammar of Jabal Nafusah, Libya, who recently published a number of volumes under the title, al-Ibadhiya fi mawkib al-tarikh, planning to present a general study of the Ibadhis in their various countries. He also published other works dealing with legal and religious matters. The other scholar is Muhammad 'Ali Dabbuz of al-Qararah, Mzab, who undertook to rewrite the history of the Maghrib from the Ibadhi point of view. Up till now he has published seven volumes he dealt with the early history of the Maghrib. The other volumes were devoted to study of modern Algeria, Thawrat al-Jazair wa nahdatuha al-mubarakah. Both authors were students of Sheikh Baiyud and were largely influenced by his reformist views. Their works argue persuasively and vigorously with Muslims that they should return to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and leave aside the causes of division resulting from following opinions of later scholars affected by political differences. This was the Ibadhi contribution to the modern Islamic attempt to restore the original Islam of the Book and the Sunnah. This was the Ibadhi contribution to the modern Islamic attempt to restore the original Islam of the Book and the Sunnah. This trend which was propagated by Muhammad 'Abduh and his student Rashid Rida, and followed up by the activities of their students, brought to Ibadhis new hope

for better understanding. First it seemed to them that at last their Muslim adversaries had started to realise what they (Ibadhis) had stood for from the beginning. The Ibadhis took part in this movement throughout the political struggle for national independence in their different countries, and stood side by side with their Sunni neighbours against the invading powers. They tried always to present their views and doctrines, to clear away the old misunderstanding and release themselves from the traditional isolation in which they always lived with regard to their Muslim neighbours. The Ibadhi contribution to the Ibadhi studies branched into two directions:

a) Providing their own literature by edition and publishing old Ibadhi works, and adding new contributions, in new writings to meet with the present requirements.

b) Presenting a clearer picture of their views and history in order to gain better understanding from non-Ibadhi Muslims.

As for non-Ibadhi Muslims, there is no serious attempt yet on their side to study Ibadhism deeply through its own sources. However, signs of such attention to Ibadhi studies have started to appear in modern universities through contemporary scholars who were no doubt directed towards Ibadhi studies through the interest and contribution of the European scholars. Cairo University, where an Ibadhi student Muhammad Hanbulah under the supervision of Muhammad Sallam Madhkur is undertaking a comparative study of the laws of ownership in Ibadhi law and modern canon law in Libya, is taking the lead in this direction. There is no doubt that the originality of the subject and the possibilities it offers for new lines of research will encourage more studies in the future.

The object of the present study is to provide a clearer picture of the Ibadhi School based on original but newly discovered Ibadhi material. Although in area this study is concerned with Ibadhism in North Africa, it was essential to study the origins of the Ibadhi movement and its early founders in Basrah, its relation to the Kharijite movement, its connection with the early events of Islamic history and political development, the effect these (two latter) had on the Ibadhi school with regard to its theological and juridical views, then its expansion into North Africa. It is also aimed to present a clear view of Ibadhi jurisprudence and theology; the points of agreement and disagreement with the contemporary opposition movements and schools of law, and some distinguishing features of the Ibadhi doctrine, namely the system of 'Walaya' and 'Bara'ah', and the stages of the Ibadhi community. Three Ibadhi texts were edited as part of this thesis to provide samples of Ibadhi literature covering the fields of theology, jurisprudence, and the subject of Walaya and Bara'ah which falls into both fields1.

The present study is so far the first to be based on a large newly discovered foundation of original material of early Ibadhi authorities and a thorough examination of most extant Ibadhi works in different fields of study. It is hoped that it will open a new horizon in the field of Islamic studies and encourage further investigation in the light of the new materials used here and the opinions reached. However, it is only the first step in the study of Ibadhiism, and no doubt a great deal remains to be done; though the writer trusts the way may have been paved by the results achieved in the research.

____________________

(1) These texts are to be published separately.

CHAPTER I

THE FOUNDATION OF THE IBADHIAH, AND THE IBADHI VIEWS ON THE KHARIJITES.

"ABDULLAH B. IBADH"

The Ibadhi school took its name from 'Abdullah b, Ibadh al-Murri al-Tamimi. The school was named after his father because he was better known than the son, as is the case in Arabic genealogy1. Al-Malati alone reported that the sect was named after its founder who is, according to him, Ibadh b. 'Amr2. This information cannot be taken into account, for al-Malati reported information about the Kharijites in his book contrary to all sound authorities who dealt with the subject3.

Very little is known about 'Abdullah b. Ibadh in both Ibadhi and non-Ibadhi sources. He is of Banu Sarim b. al-Harith b. Muqa'is of Banu Tamim, one of the main tribes of Mudar.4 Nothing is known about his early life. The modern Ibadhi scholar Muhammad b. Yusuf Attafiyish suggests that Ibn Ibadh moved from Najd, the homeland of his tribe, to Basrah5. He also reported that certain narrations state that he was a 'Sahabi for a short time6. However, Ibadhi chronicles included Ibn Ibadh, among the class of al-Tabi'un who lived during the second half of the first century H7. It is not known whether he participated in the civil wars which occurred among Muslims before the 'Umayyad rule. But it appears that he was not satisfied by the rule of Mu'awiyah and criticised its violation of the Qur'an and the Sunnah8. The first definite information about

his public activities was about his part in the defense of Mecca against the 'Umayyad leader, Hussein b. Numair al-Sakuni, the successor of Muslim b. Uqbah, (63 H/682 A.D.)9. He also was among the leaders of the Muhakkimah party who tried to win 'Abdullah b. al-Zubair to their side and offered him their full support if he agreed to their views and dissociated himself from 'Uthman Jalhah, and his own father al-Zubair b. al-Awwam, but 'Abdullah b. al-Zubair refused to agree to their views and they left him, some of them returning to Basrah among whom was 'Abdullah bin Ibadh10. It appears that the attitude of Ibn al-Zubair made them give up all hope of an outstanding leadership. A number of leading personalities emerged and sought the leadership of the movement through military action. First of these was Abu Rashid Nafii' b. al-Azraq who took an extreme line in his revolt and withdrew with his followers from the Muslim community on the basis that their land was a land of war and they were all polytheists.11 At this stage 'Abdullah b. Ibadh appeared as a leading figure who opposed the attitude of Nafii' and other Khariji leaders and refuted them openly12. Non-Ibadh sources suggest that this was how the Ibadhi school started, and accredited its foundation to 'Abdullah b. Ibadh who was according to most of those sources, the head, (ra's), of the Ibadhi school.13

The information given in Ibadhi sources shows that 'Abdullah b. Ibadh played a secondary part in the foundation and the leadership of the Ibadhi movement compared with its first Imam and founder Jabir b. Zaid. It is reported that Ibn Ibadh in all his activities was acting according to orders from Jabir b. Zaid14. It is also stated that Ibn Ibadh was the most prominent theologian of the time of Jabir b. Zaid, and that he was the one who refuted openly the view of opponent groups of Qadarites Mu'tazilites, Muji'ites, Shi'ites, and extreme Kharijites15. It is believed that Ibn Ibadh propagated openly the views of his school, despite the fact that the activities of the Ibadhi School were carried out in secrecy at that time, because he enjoyed the protection of his tribe. Another reason was that the Ibadhi movement after the revolt of Nafii' b. al-'Azraq was obliged to make its views about the Azraqites known to the public to keep the support of ordinary Muslims, and to the authorities to avoid their persecution. Jabir b. Zaid who was the Imam of the Ibadhi movement at that time directed the activities of Ibn Ibadh. The school took the name of Ibn Ibadh, because he used to openly propagate its views and was known to non-Ibadhi groups for refuting their views as also because of his clear and firm attitude against the extreme Kharijites. Another reason which made the Ibadhi school bear his name could be his political activities and his contacts with the 'Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan with whom he exchanged correspondence16. The Ibadhis did not use at first the name Ibadhis, instead they used the terms 'the Muslims' al-Muslimun, and 'community of the Muslims', Jama'at al-Muslimin,

and 'the people of the mission', 'Ahl el-da'wah. The name Ibadhis is not mentioned in early Ibadhi works such as the Mudawanah of Abu Ghanim or any other early works. Later, however, they recognised and accepted this name. It first appears in Maghribi Ibadhi works in the treatise of 'Amrus b. Fath 200 H.17

It seems that 'Abdullah b. Ibadh became a public figure because of his views and activities and certain groups other than the Ibadhis such as al-'Umariyah 18 claimed his leadership. It is also reported that al-Harithiyah, the followers of al-Harith b. Mazyad al-Ibadhi claim that they recognised none but the Imamate of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh after the death of Abu Bilal Mirdas.19

It is not clear whether 'Abdullah b. Ibadh took any active part in the military revolts which took place during his lifetime, al-Kadmi included him in one list together with Abu Bilal and 'Abdullah b. Yahya al-Kindi, and described them as al-Khawarij20. According to al-Qazwini, Ibn Ibadh revolted during the time of Marwan b. Muhammad b. 'Atiyah in Tabalah21. Shahrastani also stated that Ibn Ibadh was with 'Abdullah b. Yahya in his revolt, and in all his activities.22 Both Omani authors, al-Qalhati, and Ahmad b. Abdullah al-Ruqaishi mentioned that Ibn Ibadh lived up to the time of 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan to whom he wrote the famous letters23. But, like other Ibadhi authorities, they did not mentioned whether he lived afterwards or took part in the revolt of Abdullah b. Yahya al-Kindi. It is unlikely that Ibn Ibadh took part in those wars without being mentioned by Ibadhi authors or other historians who reported those wars such as al-Tabari, al-Isfahani and others.24

The list of early Ibadhi authorities given by al-Qalhati showed Abdullah b. Ibadh and 'Urwah b. Hadir as students of Jabir b. Zaid, 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi, and Zaid b. Sawhan and showed Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah, Farwah b. Nawfal, and Wida b. Hawtharah as students of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh and his contemporaries, while 'Abdullah b. Yahya al-Kindi and al-Mukhtar b. 'Awf were listed among the students of Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim.25 It seems that either Ibn Ibadh was dead when Jabir died and was succeeded by Abu 'Ubaidah, or else he was not important enough to take over the leadership of the movement. The first view seems to be more convincing, and can be supported by the information given by al-Baghdadi that al-Harith al-Ibadhi headed his group as successor of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh. Accordingly, Ibn Ibadh must have been dead when al-Harith started propagating his views on qadar in which he opposed the Ibadhi authorities. It is hard to believe that Ibn Ibadh was still alive, for if he was he would have refuted the views of al-Harith. Ibadhi authorities reported that the burden of refuting al-Harith was borne by Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim.26 All these facts support the views of Lewicki who pointed out that the information reported by both al-Shahrastani and al-Qazwini

concerning Ibn Ibadh's part in revolts against Marwan b. Muhammad was not very convincing27. However, the information given about Ibn Ibadh is very limited and confusing. Among the early authors who noticed this fact was Ibn Hazm who states that the most learned men of the Ibadhis of al-'Andalus knew nothing of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh28. The reason, as suggested by Ibn Hazm, was that Ibn Ibadh renounced his views and joined the Tha'alibah group of the Kharijites29. Al-Dhahabi also reported that Ibn Ibadh recanted his heresies (i.e. Ibadhism)30. Ibadhi authorities did not confirm such information. Another example of the confused and unreliable information is reported by Ibn Hawqal who said that both 'Abdullah b. Ibadh and 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi came to Jabal Nafusah and died there31.

It may be necessary here to mention the fact that the view held by Lewicki, namely that the Ibadhi state of secrecy was started by Ibn Ibadh,32 is contrary to the information reported in Ibadhi works. Ibadhi authorities stated clearly that this state of secrecy (kitman) was introduced under the leadership or the Imamate of Jabir b. Zaid who conducted the activities of the movement and its members.33 They also reported that the revolts which took place during his life, whether that of Abu Bilal or others, were planned by Jabir b. Zaid,34 who was the man responsible for the foundation and the development of the Ibadhi school.

IBADHI VIEWS ON THE KHARIJITES:

Non-Ibadhi authorities regards the Ibadhi school as a branch of the Kharijite movement, which broke away from the mainstream to form a moderate group under the leadership of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh. This account of the Ibadhi School was repeated by those scholars who studied the subject on the basis of information from non-Ibadhi sources.

It was difficult for non-Ibadhis to form a clear view of the Ibadhi movement and the nature of its relationship to the Kharijite movement. This was due to the secrecy of the activities and plans according to which most of the early Ibadhi activities were conducted. The other reason was, as mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim, the Ibadhis fear of persecution by their opponents, which made them conceal their literature.35 It is essential therefore to present the Ibadhis' own view of the origin of their movement and its place with relation to the Kharijite movements as seen by their own authorities.

Ibadhis preserved a detailed account of their views of the early political development of the Muslim community. Al-Barradi gave the following list of the early works and documents dealing with the subject.36

1. Akhbar Siffin WA al-Nahrawan.

2. Sifat 'Ahdath 'Uthman.

3. The letter sent by 'Ali b. Abi Talib to Ibn 'Abbas after the defeat of the people of al-Nahr and the reply of Ibn 'Abbas to it.

4. The letter of Jabir b. Zaid to a certain Shi'ite.

5. The letter of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh to 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan.

6. The letter of Abu Bilal Mirdas to all Muslims.

7. The letter of Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah and Hajib to the people of the Maghrib.

8. The letter of al-Rabi b. Habib concerning 'Abdullah b. 'Abd al-'Aziz, Abu al-Mu'arrij, and Shu'aib.

9. The letter of Abu al-Hurr 'Ali b. al-Husain.

10. K. Salim b. al-Hatiyah al-Hilali

11. K. Abi Sufyan Mahbub b. al-Rahil.

12. The Sirah of Muhammad b. Mahbub to the people of the Maghrib.

13. The Sirah of Munir b, al-Nayir al-Ju'lani.

Al-Barradi mentioned that he saw and read all the above-mentioned documents and works except the Sirah of Muhammad b. Mahbub.37 It is reported that a complete copy of this Sirah, consisting of seventy parts, was available in Jabal Nafusah towards the end of the fourth century H., and only part six of the book was available in Jerba Island during that period.38 However, most of these works and documents are still extant except the works of Abu Sufyan and his son Muhammad b. Mahbub, K. Salim b. al-Hatiyah al-Hilali, the letter of Jabir b. Zaid to the Shi'ite, and the letter of Abu Bilal Mirdas. Al-Barradi preserved useful information from some of those missing works in his al-Jawahir,39 while al-Darjini in his Tabaqat preserved useful information about early Ibadhi authorities from K. Abu Sufyan Mahbub.40

There are earlier Ibadhi documents that deal with the subject still in existence, which can be consulted:

1. The Sirah of Salim b. Dhakwan, and Ibadhi scholar and contemporary of Jabir b. Zaid.41

2. The Sirah of Shabib b. 'Atiyah al-'Umani.42

3. The Sirah of Abu Qahtan Khalid b. Qahtan al-Hijari.43

In addition, there are also the sermons of 'Abdullah b. Yahya and those of al-Mukhtar b. 'Awf, delivered by him in Mecca and Medina which were recorded

and preserved.44

All those works by early Ibadhi authorities contain the Ibadhi view of the early changes which took place in the Muslim community and which started with opposition to the policies of the third Caliph 'Uthman b. 'Affan, and the Ibadhi account of, and attitude towards, the different parties which came into existence in early Islamic history. The following account of the Ibadhi view of the early political development of the Muslim community, and their view of the Kharijites is based on the above-mentioned materials.

The Ibadhis considered their movement a continuation of the opposition which overthrew 'Uthman b. Affan, the third Caliph and caused his death. They regarded that opposition as being a purely Islamic rejection of the innovations introduced by 'Uthman and his 'Umayyad court. Those innovations (ahdath), were pointed out in K. Sifat Ahdath 'Uthman, the letter of 'Abdullah b. Ibadh and the Sirah of Salim b. Dhakwan. There is no mention in Ibadhi sources of the rule of 'Abdullah b. Saba' in this first revolt against 'Uthman, a fact which indicates that Ibadhis understood that the revolt was an Islamic duty carried out by the Companions of the Prophet who wanted to keep to the Sunnah of the Prophet and the example of his two successors, and not a result of any outside or mysterious influence. They (the Ibadhis) approved of the Caliphate of 'Ali b. Abi Talib and regarded Talhah, al-Zubair, A'ishah and their party as the rebellious party (al-fi'atu al-baghiyah).46 It is reported that both Jabir b. Zaid and Abu Bilal Mirdas discussed with 'A'ishah her attitude at the battle of the Camel and blamed her for her opposition to 'Ali who was the legal Caliph at that time, and she once more repented.47 They also approved of 'Ali in his wars against Mu'awiyah and regarded both Mu'awiyah and 'Amr b. al-'As and their party as the rebellious party which should be fought until they accepted the commands of God.48 But they disapproved of Ali's acceptance of arbitration, regarding those who rejected arbitration as the true Muslims, and their leader 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi he fifth legal Caliph.49 They renounced 'Ali b. Abi Talib for killing che people of al-Nahr and argued that he had no right w hatsoever to fight them. Abu 'Ubaidah Muslim b. Abi Karimah commented on the statement made by 'Ali regarding the slogan of the people of al-Nahr (la hukm illa lillah), that it was a word of truth meant for falsehood. Abu 'Ubaidah said that, since 'Ali know that their slogan expressed the truth, who informed him that false hood was their intention?50

It is reported on the authority of Jabir b. Zaid that when 'Ali b. Abi Talib noticed that his followers were disturbed at the slaughter of pious Muslims in the battle of al-Nahrawan, and regretted what they had done, he asked them on the next day of the battle to search for a devil among the dead people of al- Nahr, so they brought him a man who was bitten in the chest by a camel, and

'Ali told them that this was the devil. When his son al-Hasan reminded him that the man was Nafii', the client of the Companion himself and participated in jihad, 'Ali silenced him and told him that war is deceptive, (al-harbu khud'ah)!51. This information shows that early Ibadhi authorities believed that 'Ali b. Abi Talib was not in the right in fighting against the people of al-Nahr, and that his attitude was based on worldly desires and not on religious grounds as was the case with the people of al-Nahr52.

Thus was the view of the Ibadhis regarding the early political changes, as they understood them. To them, the Muhakkimah were the only party struggling to resume the just Islamic Imamate as it was during the time of Abu Bakr, 'Umar, the first six years of 'Uthman's rule and the early years of 'Ali before he accepted the arbitration. The military struggle of this party ended in the massacre of the people of al-Nahr by 'Ali b. Abi Talib and his forces (37 H/658 A.D.), and the people of al-Nakhilah by the joint forces of both Mu'awiyah and al-Hasan b. 'Ali.53

After this stage 'Umayyad rule became established and made its aim to prevent any sort of opposition. So the sympathisers of the Muhakkimah party, or 'al- Muslimun', or 'Jama'at al-Muslimin' as they were called in the early Ibadhi literature, were obliged to hide their faith and to carry out their activities in secret54. Among the survivors of the battle of al-Nahrawan were 'Urwah b. 'Udayyah and his brother Abu Bilal Mirdas.55 They continued their activities in Basrah, being known for their devotion to their religious duties, and were among the leading men of 'Jama'at al-Muslimin' in Basrah. It appears that Abu Bilal was a leading man of Basrah, for he was one of three men who commented on the first sermon of Ziyad b. Abih in the mosque of Basrah when the latter was appointed governor of Basrah, Khurasan and Sijistan by Mu'awiyah.56 It is also reported that Abu Bilal and Jabir b. Zaid were in a close touch during this period and he used to spend a considerable time with Jabir b. Zaid. It is reported that they together visited 'A'ishah and reproached her for her stand at the battle of the Camel.57 during this period Jabir's leadership of the Muhakkimah party was established. He was a learned pious man from al-Azd, the same tribe as 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi, the last elected leader of the party. On the whole, the activities of Jabir were intellectual, so that he was able to propagate and preserve the teaching of Islam in a way which did not arouse the suspicion of the 'Umayyad authorities. His position as an outstanding mufti in Basrah provided him with useful cover and enabled him to establish widespread contacts with leading persons in different parts of the Islamic countries. 58

The policy of Jabir was to use all means to ensure the security of his movement and safety for his followers. He even went to the extent of ordering the

assassination of a certain Khardalah who informed the 'Umayyad authorities about the names of the members of the Ibadhi movement in Basrah and disclosed its secrets.59 Jabir also allowed bribery to avoid difficulties with the authorities during the rule of 'Ubaidulah b. Ziyad.60

The increasing and continuing oppression of the members of the Muhakkimah party in Basrah by 'Ubaidullah b. Ziyad obliged some of the members to react violently, and led the authorities to further persecution of their fellow Muslims.61 The faced all sorts of cruel treatment ranging from imprisonment to death.62 Even women were subjected to cruel punishment.63 This situation made it impossible for the leading personalities of the party to lead a peaceful life, let alone have any chance to propagate and teach their views. At this stage the principle of shira', sacrifice of one's life, was introduced into the movement under special rules, and was carried out by forty members of the movement under the leadership of Abu Bilal Mirdas, who made it clear that he intended to fight only those who fought against him, and that he would not take anything of spoils except the pensions ('ulyat) which he was entitled to take.64 This was in fact an open rejection of the policy of 'isti'rad, which was practised by some of the Khawarij prior to Abu Bilal, who was known for their sympathy with the Muhakkimah party.65 It was also a practical execution of the policies of shira', sacrifice of one's life and qu'ud, remaining quiescent under the rule of tyrants and not going out for jihad against their rule, during the 'stage' of kitman, secrecy. In so doing, Abu Bilal did not reject qu'ud or taqiyah. In fact he himself approved of the principle of taqiyah and advised al- Bathia to hide her beliefs when he heard that 'Ubaidullah b. Ziyad had decided to punish her.66 However, Abu Bilal and his followers, after they defeated an army of two thousand, were all killed in another battle while performing their prayers.67 Ibadhi authorities reported that this revolt of Abu Bilal was planned and approved of by Jabir b. Zaid, the Imam of the Ibadhis at that time.68 It is also reported that Abu Bilal, when leaving Basrah, asked Jabir to join him,69 but Jabir stayed in Basrah and continued his policy of avoiding violence. The relation between Ibadhis and their Muslim opponents was established on the basis of the following principles:

a) Ibadhis should fight only those who fight against them and must not adopt the policy of 'isti'rad.

b) The property of Muslims should not be taken as spoils and their women and children should not be killed or taken in captivity (saby). This principle is based on the example and the proactive of the early Muslims in their fight against 'Uthman and his supporters, and on the practice of 'Ali in his war against Talhah and al-Zubair when 'Ali was the legal Caliph.70

c) Khuruj is not obligatory, and Muslims can live under the rule of tyrants