The text of Aristotle most relevant to this book is the

Nicomachean Ethics , available in Penguin Classics in an edition by Jonathan Barnes (Harmondsworth, 1976). Jonathan Barnes has also published a useful introduction to Aristotle in the Very Short Introduction series (Oxford, 2000), though not much of it deals with his ethical thought. See also D. S. Hutchinson,

The Virtues of Aristotle (London, 1986), and Jonathan Lear,

Aristotle: The Desire to Understand (Cambridge, 1988).

More general studies of ethics relevant to the book’s argument can be found in Alasdair MacIntyre,

A Short History of Ethics (London, 1968) and

After Virtue (London, 1981). A more recent, illuminating study is Rosalind Hursthouse,

On Virtue Ethics (Oxford, 1999). (2) شوبنهاور

Schopenhauer’s major work, and the only one referred to in this study, is

The World as Will and Representation , ed. E. F. J. Payne, 2 vols. (New York, 1969). Useful introductions to Schopenhauer are to be found in Patrick Gardiner,

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